Publications Database - List of storage publications

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    December, 2006

CCP2 NGO Focus Group Meeting (North America) Storage Monitoring & Verification (SMV)

Scott Imbus, Chevron Energy Technology Co

Overview of the storage program for Phase 2 presented at the CCP2 NGO Focus Group Meeting in North America, December 2006.

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    November, 2005

CO₂ Capture Project Phase 2: Storage Monitoring and Verification Program (SMV) An Overview - NGO Meeting Washington DC 2005

CO₂ Capture Project

Overview of CO₂ Capture Project storage, monitoring and verification (SMV) work program presented at the CCP2 NGO Focus Group Meeting in Washington DC November 2005.

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    June, 2005

Vol 2 Chapter 1: Overview of Geologic Storage of CO₂

Sally M. Benson

Abstract: This paper presents an overview of geologic storage of CO₂. Topics addressed include the nature and extent of formations that could be used for geologic storage, the physical and chemical processes responsible for geologic storage, risks of geologic storage, and demonstration projects underway today. In addition, this chapter introduces the topics that are covered in this book.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO₂ Capture Project Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide with Monitoring and Verification - Volume 2
Edited by: Sally M. Benson, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

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    June, 2005

Vol 2 Chapter 2: Technical Highlights of the CCP Research Program on Geological Storage of CO₂

S. Imbus

Abstract: This chapter provides an overview of the contents of this volume and the technical contributions of the CCP research team. Key results from 32 individual research projects are described. Contributions are discussed under four headings: storage integrity; storage optimization; monitoring; and risk assessment.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO₂ Capture Project Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide with Monitoring and Verification - Volume 2
Edited by: Sally M. Benson, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

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    June, 2005

Vol 2 Chapter 3: Natural CO₂ Fields as Analogs for Geologic CO₂ Storage

Scott H. Stevens

Abstract: Our study evaluated three underground gas fields in the USA that have been effective CO₂ traps for millions of years: the Jackson, McElmo, and St. Johns Domes. Together, these fields stored 2.4 billion t of CO₂, equivalent to more than 1 year of USA power plant emissions. Because CO₂ in these fields has been commercially extracted for industrial uses, the fields offer data on natural CO₂ reservoirs, cap rocks, and production operations. M0cElmo Dome, the largest and most important field, originally stored 1.6 billion t of supercritical CO₂ within a carboniferous carbonate reservoir at a depth of 2300 m. Carbon isotope data indicate the CO₂ originated from a nearby igneous intrusion dated to 70 Ma. Its cap rock is a 400-m thick sequence of salt (halite), which is finely layered and unperturbed by faults which cut the underlying reservoir; there is no evidence of CO₂ leaking into the overlying strata. McElmo Dome has two decades of safe operational history. It currently produces 15 million t/year (800 MMcfd) of 99%-pure CO₂, which is transported 900 km via pipeline to depleted oil fields for re-injection and enhanced recovery. However, the three fields in our study represent a small sampling of geologic situations, insufficient for defining universal criteria for cap rock integrity. Building scientific and public acceptance for geologic CO₂ storage may be facilitated if proposed projects each had a local or regional natural analog.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO₂ Capture Project Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide with Monitoring and Verification - Volume 2
Edited by: Sally M. Benson, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

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    June, 2005

Vol 2 Chapter 4: Natural Leaking CO₂-charged Systems as Analogs for Failed Geologic Storage Reservoirs

Zoe K. Shipton, James P. Evans, Ben Dockrill, Jason Heath, Anthony Williams, David Kirchner and Peter T. Kolesar

Abstract: Analysis of leaky CO₂ reservoirs in the northern Paradox Basin, Utah has allowed us to develop a model for the shallow subsurface CO₂ flow system. The results provide information on how CO₂ migrates and reacts with groundwater and reservoir rocks in the subsurface, and what the effects on surface environments are when CO₂ leaks to the surface. A series of shallow fluvial and eolian sandstone groundwater reservoirs are charged with CO₂ derived mostly from clay–carbonate reactions in Paleozoic source rocks within the basin (depths greater than 1.5 km). The CO₂-charged groundwater builds up in a north-plunging anticlinal trap with fault sealing on its southern margin. Top seal is provided by shale-rich formations, but fractures related to the fault damage zone provide conduits through the top seal. This geometry has resulted in a series of stacked reservoirs, and ultimately in escape of the natural CO₂ into the atmosphere. The CO₂ escapes through a series of springs and geysers along the faults, and through wellbores that have penetrated the reservoir. At the surface, rapid degassing of CO₂-charged groundwater results in the formation of travertine mounds around active springs. The presence of deeply incised ancient mounds attests to the long lifespan of this leaky system. There is no evidence of adverse effects of this leakage on wildlife or humans, and the springs provide (somewhat saline) water for plants in this high desert environment. Studies on the effect of long-term leakage both in the subsurface and at the point of leakage to the surface provide data on factors that affect the safety and feasibility of future CO₂ injection projects and should guide the design and implementation of geologic storage projects.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO₂ Capture Project Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide with Monitoring and Verification - Volume 2
Edited by: Sally M. Benson, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

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    June, 2005

Vol 2 Chapter 5: The NGCAS Project - Assessing the Potential for EOR and CO₂ Storage at the Forties Oilfield, Offshore UK

S. J. Cawley, M. R. Saunders, Y. Le Gallo, B. Carpentier, S. Holloway, G.A. Kirby, T. Bennison, L. Wickens, R. Wikramaratna, T. Bidstrup, S.L.B. Arkley, M.A.E. Browne and J.M. Ketzer

Abstract: The Next Generation Capture and Storage Project studied the potential to store underground 2 million tonnes of CO₂, approximately half the annual CO₂ emissions from the Grangemouth refinery and petrochemicals complex near Edinburgh, Scotland. The study concluded that the best potential storage site for these emissions was the Forties oilfield in the UK sector of the North Sea. Numerical simulation indicated that enhanced oil recovery using aWAGprocess and CO₂ as the injection gas would yield significant incremental oil. A Features–Events–Processes (FEP) identification process was used to narrow down the risks to storage at the Forties field. Numerical modelling was then used to assess the risks of CO₂ escape. It was concluded that the geological risks of CO₂ escape were negligible, but it was not possible to analyse the chances of CO₂ escape via pre-existing wells. The wells are perceived as the main uncertainty in the analysis and it is recommended that a comprehensive risk assessment methodology for wells is developed.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO₂ Capture Project Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide with Monitoring and Verification - Volume 2
Edited by: Sally M. Benson, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

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    June, 2005

Vol 2 Chapter 6: Predicting and Monitoring Geomechanical Effects of CO₂ Injection

Jurgen E. Streit, Anthony F. Siggins and Brian J. Evans

Abstract: Predicting and monitoring the geomechanical effects of underground CO₂ injection on stresses and seal integrity of the storage formation are crucial aspects of geological CO₂ storage. An increase in formation fluid pressure in a storage formation due to CO₂ injection decreases the effective stress in the rock. Low effective stresses can lead to fault reactivation or rock failure which could possibly be associated with seal breaching and unwanted CO₂ migration. To avoid seal breaching, the geomechanical stability of faults, reservoir rock, and top seal in potential CO₂ storage sites needs to be assessed. This requires the determination of in situ stresses, fault geometries, and frictional strengths of reservoir and seal rock. Fault stability and maximum sustainable pore fluid pressures can be estimated using methods such as failure plots, the FAST technique, or TrapTester (Badley Geoscience Ltd) software. In pressure-depleted reservoirs, in situ stresses and seal integrity need to be determined after depletion to estimate maximum sustainable pore fluid pressures. The detection of micro-seismic events arising from injection-induced shear failure of faults, fractures and intact rock is possible with geophone and accelerometer installations and can be used for real-time adjustment of injection pressures. In the event of injected CO₂ opening and infiltrating extensive fracture networks, this can possibly be detected using multi-component seismic methods and shear-wave splitting analysis.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO₂ Capture Project Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide with Monitoring and Verification - Volume 2
Edited by: Sally M. Benson, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

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    June, 2005

Vol 2 Chapter 7: Geophysical and Geochemical Effects of Supercritical CO₂ on Sandstones

Hartmut Schutt, Marcus Wigand and Erik Spangenberg

Abstract: The overall objective of this laboratory study was to investigate the geophysical and geochemical effects of CO₂ storage in deep saline formations. We used a triaxial cell and autoclaves to reproduce reservoir pressure and temperature conditions that are representative of depths down to 2000 m. The CO₂ is in the supercritical state (CO₂,scr) at depths greater than approximately 800 m. We measured a number of geophysical parameters, such as seismic wave speeds and attenuation, and collected liquid samples that had been in contact with the rock. Geochemical reactions were studied in detail in autoclaves that are charged with either milled rock or mineral separates. We used three sandstone samples as reservoir rock, and 1 M NaCl solution in doubly deionized water as brine. The geophysical data showed that some effects were qualitatively predictable by standard models. The Gassmann model predicted the dependence of the saturating fluid on the bulk modulus, but underestimated the measured results by approximately 10%. This discrepancy may be due to the modulus dispersion between the low-frequency range of the Gassmann model and the ultrasonic laboratory frequency. The Voigt model reproduced the saturation dependence of vp: Some experiments, however, indicated the existence of fluid front instabilities by reaching only 50% saturation. This corroborated the results of numerical modeling qualitatively. Unexpected was the increase of the compressional wave attenuation for CO₂,scr saturation. Scattering can be excluded as a cause, and a local fluid flow model failed to predict the observed effect. Also unexpected and not predicted by the Gassmann equations was the dependence on the saturating fluid of the shear modulus, which is a few percent smaller for CO₂,scr saturation than for brine saturation. This may be caused by fluid–mineral interactions. Mineralogical analysis of the rock before and after CO₂ flooding indicated that the concentration of major and trace elements decreased, whereas the Si content increased. The mobilization and removal of these elements was caused by the alteration of rock-forming minerals, e.g. biotite, plagioclase, alkali feldspar. Furthermore, we observed the mobilization of heavy metal cations. Precipitation of mineral phases (e.g. dawsonite) was not observed in the short-term experiments. We are still lacking a thorough understanding of the correlation between geophysical and geochemical data. Longterm experiments (duration of several weeks) and careful analysis on a smaller length-scale (individual rains and grain contacts) may help to address this issue.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO₂ Capture Project Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide with Monitoring and Verification - Volume 2
Edited by: Sally M. Benson, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

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    June, 2005

Vol 2 Chapter 8: Reactive Transport Modelling of Cap-rock Integrity During Natural and Engineered CO₂ storage

James W. Johnson, John J. Nitao and Joseph P. Morris

Abstract: Long-term cap rock integrity represents the single most important constraint on the long-term isolation performance of natural and engineered CO₂ storage sites. CO₂ influx that forms natural accumulations and CO₂ injection for EOR/storage or saline-aquifer disposal both lead to geochemical alteration and geomechanical deformation of the cap rock, enhancing or degrading its seal integrity depending on the relative effectiveness of these interdependent processes. Using our reactive transport simulator (NUFT), supporting geochemical databases and software (GEMBOCHS, SUPCRT92), and distinct-element geomechanical model (LDEC), we have shown that influx-triggered mineral dissolution/precipitation reactions within typical shale cap rocks continuously reduce microfracture apertures, while pressure and effective-stress evolution first rapidly increase then slowly constrict them. For a given shale composition, the extent of geochemical integrity enhancement in the cap rock is nearly independent of key reservoir properties (permeability and lateral continuity) that distinguish EOR/sequestration and saline formation settings and of CO₂ influx parameters (rate, focality, and duration) that distinguish engineered disposal sites and natural accumulations, because these characteristics and parameter have negligible (indirect) impact on mineral dissolution/precipitation rates. In contrast, the extent of geomechanical integrity degradation is highly dependent on these reservoir properties and influx parameters because they effectively dictate magnitude of the pressure perturbation. Specifically, initial geomechanical degradation has been shown inversely proportional to reservoir permeability and lateral continuity and proportional to influx rate. Hence, while the extent of geochemical alteration is nearly independent of filling mode, that of geomechanical deformation is significantly more pronounced during engineered storage. This suggests that the currently secure cap rock of a given natural CO₂ accumulation may be incapable of providing an effective seal in the context of an engineered injection, a potential discrepancy that limits the extent to which natural CO₂ reservoirs and engineered storage sites can be considered analogous. In addition, the pressure increase associated with CO₂ accumulation in any compartmentalized system invariably results in net geomechanical aperture widening of cap-rock microfractures. This suggests that ultimate restoration of pre-influx hydrodynamic seal integrity—in both EOR/storage and natural accumulation settings—hinges on ultimate geochemical counterbalancing of this geomechanical effect. To explore this hypothesis, we have introduced a new conceptual framework that depicts such counterbalancing as a function of effective diffusion distance and reaction progress. This framework reveals that ultimate counterbalancing of geochemical and geomechanical effects is feasible, which suggests that shale cap rocks may in fact evolve into effective seals in both natural and engineered storage sites.

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO₂ Capture Project Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide with Monitoring and Verification - Volume 2
Edited by: Sally M. Benson, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA

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